The Concept of Dukkha

Buddhism is a doctrine that aims to make dukkha (suffering) clearly visible. Dukkha refers to suffering itself. Broadly, it can be classified into two types: physical suffering and mental suffering. Physical suffering is called rūpa-dukkha (bodily suffering), and mental suffering is nāma-dukkha (mental suffering). Therefore, both rūpa (material form) and nāma (mentality) are dukkha. The combination of rūpa and nāma is commonly called a “being” (satta) or a “life” (bhava). Therefore, life itself is dukkha. The Buddha declared that not getting what one wants is dukkha; getting what one does not want is also dukkha; being separated from loved ones is dukkha; being united with those one dislikes is dukkha; birth, aging, illness, and death are dukkha. In brief, the five aggregates of clinging (upādānakkhandhā) were explained by the Buddha as being nothing but dukkha. Upādānakkhandhā refers to the five aggregates that are the basis for attachment. Whether through craving (taṇhā) or wrong view (diṭṭhi), these five aggregates are objects of clinging. When physical appearance is attractive, it becomes an object of craving. When views about men or women are not abandoned, attachment through views arises. Just as a man becomes attached to a woman, a woman also becomes attached to a man. This mutual attraction is taṇhā (craving). Moreover, one may even cling to one’s own body—thinking, “I am fair-skinned,” “I am well-endowed,” “I am handsome,” “No one is as pure as I am,” etc. This self-admiration leads to craving. Then attachment (upādāna) follows, and conceit (māna) arises. Thus, due to craving, conceit, and wrong view, the five aggregates become the object of clinging and are known as the upādānakkhandhā. In general speech, these are simply called the “five aggregates.” The Buddha declared that these five aggregates are dukkha. Hence, non-Buddhists often accuse Buddhism of being a pessimistic doctrine. In truth, it is not pessimism, but realism—seeing things as they really are. Therefore, rather than calling it a pessimistic doctrine, it should rightly be called a realistic doctrine. To properly understand Buddhism, one must distinguish between two domains: the domain of paramattha-sacca (ultimate truth) and the domain of sammuti-sacca (conventional truth). The Buddha taught only what is true and factual in the domain of ultimate truth, without bias. He spoke not for individuals, but for the Dhamma. He did not discriminate among humans, deities, or Brahmās—kings or commoners—but addressed all equally, pointing out dukkha from the standpoint of ultimate truth. Because the teachings are without exception and purely truthful, they are known as the teachings of truth (sacca-desanā). Declaring that all existence is dukkha was unsettling to those who cling to worldly happiness. However, the Buddha never denied the existence of conventional happiness (sammuti-sukha) in the world. He acknowledged the happiness of humans, gods, and Brahmās. Teachings that affirm such types of happiness—such as the comfort of kings, the wealth of merchants, and the serenity of monastic life—are examples found in the domain of conventional truth. Therefore, it is not that the Buddha turned a blind eye to worldly happiness. When addressing individuals and societies conventionally, he also taught about their happiness. While conventional happiness is acknowledged in the conventional domain, in the ultimate truth domain, there is no person or self—no worldly status. Hence, it is taught that in the absolute sense, there is no such thing as true happiness in the world; all conditioned phenomena are merely suffering (sabbe saṅkhārā dukkhā). Beings in all realms—from humans to gods to Brahmās—are composed of the five aggregates. And wherever aggregates exist, birth, aging, and death follow. Hence, even those lives that appear happy are inescapably dukkha. The Buddha’s recognition of worldly happiness is evident in the classification of three kinds of feelings (vedanā): pleasant (sukha), painful (dukkha), and neutral (upekkhā). Though pleasant feeling is acknowledged, it is still impermanent and, when it ceases, results in suffering (ṭhiti sukhaṃ, vipariṇāmaṃ dukkhaṃ). Therefore, despite classifying three types of feelings, none are lasting. All feelings arise and cease, making dukkha the only enduring truth. In Buddhism, the ultimate goal beyond dukkha is Nibbāna. To attain Nibbāna, one must know dukkha, see it clearly, and understand it. Since all phenomena arise dependent on causes, and cease when those causes cease, their impermanence makes them dukkha. Thus, whatever we perceive—whether it is feelings, perceptions, mental formations, or consciousness—must be understood as impermanent and unsatisfactory. From this vision arises the insight that there is no other reality but dukkha when seen through the lens of truth. Once one fully understands that wherever there are aggregates, there is dukkha, it becomes clear that even the wealthy, despite enjoying worldly pleasures, are not exempt from dukkha. All beings—rich or poor, human or divine—are alike in this regard. To truly understand the Buddha’s teaching on dukkha, one must go beyond a superficial notion of suffering as merely “being poor” or “unfortunate.” Even animals suffer. Humans suffer due to lack of wealth, incomplete lives, lack of employment, dissatisfaction, poor health, or social oppression. But such suffering is only known by the person experiencing it. It is not yet the realization of dukkha-sacca (the Noble Truth of Suffering). True understanding comes from seeing the impermanent, unsatisfactory, and selfless nature of the aggregates through one’s own wisdom. This clear and experiential insight into the arising and dissolution of the aggregates is the genuine realization of the First Noble Truth—dukkha-sacca. When one truly knows this, the wisdom that knows is itself the path—the magga-sacca (the truth of the path). When dukkha is known through insight, there is no room for defilements like craving, pride, and wrong view to arise. At that point, samudaya-sacca (the truth of the origin of suffering) is suppressed. Replacing the origin of suffering with the path, and suffering with its cessation, is the heart of the practice. So long as one does not see dukkha, the cycle of dukkha and its cause revolves endlessly. When one sees dukkha with insight, the path and cessation truths emerge. This marks the beginning of liberation. As insight develops, a point will be reached where dukkha is utterly brought to an end, and Nibbāna—cessation—becomes realized. What matters most is not merely knowing that one suffers physically or mentally, but understanding the inner mechanism of how rūpa and nāma arise and pass away. This insight shows what is truly happening: arising and vanishing—this is dukkha. The one who sees is the path. While this is happening, defilements cannot arise, and thus the cause of suffering is stilled. When defilements cease, there is no more future rebirth, and thus cessation (nirodha-sacca) is realized—meaning Nibbāna. Therefore, if one truly wishes to realize Nibbāna, the most essential step is to deeply understand the Noble Truth of Suffering. Once it is known, the Path will arise, the Cause will be extinguished, and the Cessation will follow naturally. Dr. Ashin Parami